Direct Object
A **direct-object accusative** is a complement in the construction of a transitive verb. In **ἠγάπησεν ὁ Θεὸς τὸν κόσμον** ('God loved the world'), τὸν κόσμον is the object of ἠγάπησεν. The object need not literally receive an action or undergo a change. Some Greek verbs select genitive or dative complements where English uses a direct object; learn the case construction with the verb and its sense.
**John 3:16 — HBS BYZ04:** **ἠγάπησεν ὁ Θεὸς τὸν κόσμον** ('God loved the world'). **ὁ Θεός** is the nominative subject; **τὸν κόσμον** is the accusative singular masculine direct object.
External Object
**External** or **outer object** is a traditional label for the ordinary direct object, contrasted with an **internal object** that expresses the event or content associated with the verb. The distinction concerns the relation between verb and object; it does not mean that every external object is a physical entity acted upon. Terminological boundaries vary among grammars.
Internal Object
An **internal object** expresses an event or content associated with its verb rather than an independently construed participant. **Cognate accusative** is often used for this family of constructions, but terminology varies: in a narrower usage, 'cognate' requires a related word stem, whereas an internal object can be related in meaning without sharing the stem. The construction does not automatically create emphasis; modifiers and discourse determine the effect.
Cognate Accusative
A **cognate accusative**, in the narrower morphological sense, is an accusative noun related in word stem to its verb and expressing the associated event or content. **ἐφοβήθησαν φόβον μέγαν** (Luke 2:9) means 'they were greatly afraid', literally 'they feared a great fear'. φόβον is related to φοβέομαι; μέγαν qualifies the fear.
Such constructions are native to Greek and occur before the New Testament. Their presence alone does not demonstrate Semitic interference or defective Greek. A proposal about influence in a particular passage needs comparative and contextual evidence; native Greek availability does not by itself settle every question of contact or style. See Chapter 71 for that broader discussion.
**Luke 2:9 — HBS BYZ04:** **ἐφοβήθησαν φόβον μέγαν** ('they were greatly afraid'). **φόβον** is accusative singular masculine, qualified by μέγαν. This is an attested New Testament cognate accusative; its grammatical analysis does not alone establish a language-influence explanation.
Double Accusative
Some verbs license **two accusative complements**. Distinguish **person and thing/content** from **object and predicate** constructions. **Constructed person-and-content example:** **διδάσκει αὐτοὺς τὸν νόμον** ('he/she teaches them the law'). The exact complement pattern depends on the verb and its sense; the mere presence of two accusatives does not prove that they have the same syntactic relation.
Person and Thing (Double Accusative)
In a **person-and-thing double accusative**, one accusative identifies the person involved and the other the content taught, thing requested, or similar complement. **Constructed example:** **διδάσκει αὐτοὺς τὸν νόμον**: αὐτούς identifies those taught; τὸν νόμον is the content. The person is not universally a recipient: with asking or demanding, that person may be the one from whom something is sought. Distinguish this from a predicate describing the object.
Object and Predicate Accusative
An **object-and-predicate accusative** contains an object and a complement that describes or identifies that same referent. **John 5:18 — HBS BYZ04:** **ἴσον ἑαυτὸν ποιῶν τῷ Θεῷ** ('making himself equal with God'). **ἑαυτόν** is the accusative object of ποιῶν; **ἴσον** is its predicate adjective, accusative singular masculine here. **τῷ Θεῷ** is a dative complement of ἴσον. The two accusatives are not two people or things involved independently. Their order does not determine their roles.
Accusative of Respect
An **accusative of respect** specifies the aspect in which a statement applies. **Matt 27:57 — HBS BYZ04:** **τοὔνομα Ἰωσήφ** ('Joseph by name'), within the description of the man from Arimathea. **τοὔνομα** is a contraction by crasis of τὸ ὄνομα; the accusative indicates the respect 'as to name'. An isolated phrase such as τὴν ψυχήν cannot establish a respect use without a governing construction and context.
Accusative of Specification
**Accusative of specification** is another traditional name for **accusative of respect**. It specifies the aspect under discussion, as 'by name' does in τοὔνομα Ἰωσήφ (Matt 27:57). The two headings describe the same broad use, not distinct case forms. Dative reference can express a related semantic relation; the actual construction must be identified.
Accusative of Extent of Space
An **accusative of spatial extent** specifies how far. **John 6:19 — HBS BYZ04:** **ἐληλακότες οὖν ὡς σταδίους εἴκοσι πέντε ἢ τριάκοντα** ('having therefore rowed about twenty-five or thirty stadia'). **σταδίους** is accusative plural masculine and expresses distance. **ὡς** supplies the approximation; 'about' is not encoded by the accusative. The full distance expression includes the alternative 'or thirty'.
Accusative of Duration of Time
An **accusative of duration** specifies how long a situation lasts. **Constructed illustration:** **ἔμεινεν τρεῖς ἡμέρας** ('he/she stayed for three days'). τρεῖς ἡμέρας gives the duration.
The useful contrast between accusative duration, dative temporal setting, and genitive time expressions is not a universal decoding rule. A dative can identify a day or period, not only a point, and a genitive is not always translated 'within which'. Prepositions, lexical content, and the complete construction matter. An isolated accusative time noun does not prove duration.
Adverbial Accusative
An **adverbial accusative** is an accusative expression functioning as an adverbial modifier or discourse expression. Many are neuter adjectives, but the category is **not restricted to neuter forms**. **Constructed illustration:** **τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον λέγει** ('he/she speaks in this way'); τὸν τρόπον is masculine.
**Phil 3:1 — HBS BYZ04:** **Τὸ λοιπόν, ἀδελφοί μου, χαίρετε ἐν Κυρίῳ** ('Finally, my brothers and sisters, rejoice in the Lord'). Τὸ λοιπόν is a conventional adverbial transition, not the direct object of χαίρετε. Its discourse force depends on context. An isolated πάντα can also be an ordinary object; 'in all things' is not its automatic syntactic analysis.
Accusative Subject of the Infinitive
An **overt, independently expressed subject of an infinitive** commonly stands in the accusative. **Constructed teaching example:** **νομίζω Ἰησοῦν εἶναι τὸν Χριστόν** ('I think that Jesus is the Christ'). **Ἰησοῦν** is the subject of εἶναι; **τὸν Χριστόν** is its predicate accusative, not the direct object of εἶναι.
An infinitive’s subject can instead be controlled or understood from context: **θέλω ἀπελθεῖν** ('I want to leave', constructed) has no expressed accusative subject. Nor is every accusative beside an infinitive its subject: an infinitive can have its own object. Identify the full construction. See Chapter 36.
Accusative with Oaths
The asseverative particle **νή** introduces an accusative expression in an oath or solemn affirmation. It occurs in the New Testament as well as earlier Greek. **1 Cor 15:31 — HBS BYZ04:** **νὴ τὴν ὑμετέραν καύχησιν** ('by the boasting concerning you'). The accusative phrase is licensed by νή; it is not an ordinary direct object. The following relative clause **ἣν ἔχω** ('which I have') identifies Paul as the one boasting in this context.
Distinguish **ἐν + dative** in **Matt 23:20–22 — HBS BYZ04**: **ὁ οὖν ὀμόσας ἐν τῷ θυσιαστηρίῳ** ('the one who swore by the altar'), **καὶ ὁ ὀμόσας ἐν τῷ ναῷ** ('and the one who swore by the temple'), and **καὶ ὁ ὀμόσας ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ** ('and the one who swore by heaven'). These are dative prepositional constructions. An English translation with 'by' does not determine Greek case.
Accusative with Prepositions
Accusative prepositional constructions include **ἀνά + accusative** and **εἰς + accusative**, as well as accusative uses of **πρός, διά, ἐπί, κατά, μετά, παρά, περί, ὑπέρ, ὑπό**. Many of these prepositions occur with other cases; identify the actual preposition-plus-case construction before interpreting it.
In particular, **πρός is not accusative-only**. **Luke 19:37 — HBS BYZ04:** **πρὸς τῇ καταβάσει τοῦ ὄρους τῶν ἐλαιῶν** ('at the descent of the Mount of Olives') contains **πρός + dative**, despite the much more familiar πρός + accusative pattern. A governed accusative is structurally distinct from a bare direct-object or extent use. See Chapter 46.
Paradigms
Major Uses of the Accusative
Selected accusative functions and constructions. Identify the governor and context; case form alone does not decide the function. Constructed examples are labelled explicitly.
| Use / construction | Interpretation | Example |
| Direct object | object of a transitive verb | John 3:16: ἠγάπησεν ὁ Θεὸς τὸν κόσμον — God loved the world |
|---|---|---|
| Person + content | two complements | Constructed: διδάσκει αὐτοὺς τὸν νόμον — teaches them the law |
| Object + predicate | predicate describes the object | John 5:18: ἴσον ἑαυτὸν ποιῶν τῷ Θεῷ — making himself equal with God |
| Cognate accusative | noun related to its verb | Luke 2:9: ἐφοβήθησαν φόβον μέγαν — they were greatly afraid |
| Duration | how long in this construction | Constructed: ἔμεινεν τρεῖς ἡμέρας — stayed for three days |
| Infinitival subject | expressed subject in this construction | Constructed: νομίζω Ἰησοῦν εἶναι τὸν Χριστόν — I think that Jesus is the Christ |
| Adverbial accusative | conventional transition | Phil 3:1: Τὸ λοιπόν — finally |
Chapter glossary
- — direct object (accusative)
syntax
An accusative functioning as a direct object: τὸν κόσμον in ἠγάπησεν ὁ Θεὸς τὸν κόσμον (John 3:16). Direct object is a syntactic relation; not every object is a literal recipient or an entity changed by an action.- — double accusative
syntax
Two accusative complements licensed by a construction. Distinguish person plus content (constructed διδάσκει αὐτοὺς τὸν νόμον) from object plus predicate describing that object (ἴσον ἑαυτὸν ποιῶν, John 5:18). Merely counting accusatives does not identify the relation.- — cognate accusative
syntax
In a narrow morphological use, an accusative noun related in stem to its verb and expressing its associated event or content: ἐφοβήθησαν φόβον μέγαν (Luke 2:9). Some grammars use 'cognate' more broadly for internal objects. The construction is native to Greek; contact influence requires separate evidence.- — accusative of extent
syntax
An accusative expressing spatial distance or temporal duration in context. Constructed: ἔμεινεν τρεῖς ἡμέρας ('stayed for three days'). John 6:19 uses σταδίους in 'about twenty-five or thirty stadia'. Do not infer extent from case form alone.- — accusative subject of infinitive
syntax
An accusative functioning as an expressed subject of an infinitive. In constructed νομίζω Ἰησοῦν εἶναι τὸν Χριστόν, Ἰησοῦν is the infinitival subject and τὸν Χριστόν its predicate. Infinitival subjects can also be unexpressed and understood or controlled; an accusative subject is not universally required.- — adverbial accusative
syntax
An accusative expression used adverbially, not restricted to neuter forms. Examples: τὸ λοιπόν as a transition (Phil 3:1), and the constructed masculine phrase τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον λέγει ('speaks in this way'). Determine the function from the construction.- — accusative with oaths (νή + acc.)
syntax
An accusative licensed by the oath/affirmation particle νή, attested in 1 Cor 15:31: νὴ τὴν ὑμετέραν καύχησιν. Distinguish the ἐν + dative oath expressions in Matt 23:20–22. Translate and classify the Greek construction actually present.