εἰμί ('to be')
**εἰμί** is the high-frequency irregular verb 'to be'. In its present system it uses inherited athematic/irregular morphology and is enclitic in many present forms. Major functions include (1) **copular** use linking subject and predicate complement, (2) **existential** use, and (3) participation in **periphrastic verbal constructions** with participles. Because its paradigm is irregular, the principal NT/Koine forms must be learned directly. In passages with an explicit subject pronoun such as **ἐγώ**, parse morphology and syntax first; an overt pronoun may mark contrast, focus, topic, emphasis, or other discourse prominence, and no specific theological/intertextual conclusion follows from the pronoun alone.
**John 1:1 (PT1904/GOC)** — Ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ Λόγος, καὶ ὁ Λόγος ἦν πρὸς τὸν Θεόν, καὶ Θεὸς ἦν ὁ Λόγος. **ἦν** is imperfect active indicative, 3rd singular, of **εἰμί**. In the final clause, **Θεὸς** is the predicate nominative and **ὁ Λόγος** is the subject; syntax identifies their grammatical relationship without by itself settling every exegetical question about the predicate.
**John 8:58 (PT1904/GOC)** — πρὶν Ἀβραὰμ γενέσθαι **ἐγὼ εἰμί**. **ἐγώ** is an explicit nominative 1st-singular subject pronoun; **εἰμί** is present active indicative, 1st singular. Because Greek can omit the subject pronoun when the verbal person is clear, an overt **ἐγώ** is discourse-marked, but its precise function—contrast, focus, topic, emphasis, or another discourse effect—must be established from context. Proposed theological or intertextual connections, including discussion of Exodus 3:14, are passage-level exegetical arguments and are not encoded automatically by the pronoun or the present-tense morphology.
γίνομαι ('to become, be, happen')
**γίνομαι** ('become, come into being, happen') is best described as a **lexical-middle / middle-form lexeme** (traditional terminology: *deponent*) with a highly irregular paradigm built from related **γεν-/γον-** stem material. Its major systems include **γίνομαι** (present middle morphology), **γενήσομαι** (future middle morphology), **ἐγενόμην** (aorist middle), **γέγονα** (perfect active), **γεγένημαι** (perfect middle/passive), and **ἐγενήθην** (aorist passive-system morphology). These forms show reduplication, ablaut/stem-grade alternation, and system-specific voice morphology, but they should **not** be classified as suppletive in the strict GOLD sense because they belong to the same historical root family. The common narrative form **ἐγένετο** is 3rd singular **second aorist middle indicative**, not passive morphology; the distinct passive-system form **ἐγενήθη** must be analyzed separately. English active translations do not change the Greek morphological voice.
**Matt 1:22** — Τοῦτο δὲ **ὅλον** **γέγονεν**… (perf.)
**Mark 1:9** — **Καὶ ἐγένετο** ἐν ἐκείναις ταῖς ἡμέραις…
*And it came to pass in those days…* — ἐγένετο = 3 sg. aor. mid. ind. of γίνομαι ('it happened / came to be'), the classic Markan/Matthean/Lukan narrative opening. (Distinct from the aor. pass. ἐγενήθην.)
οἶδα ('to know')
**οἶδα** means 'know' synchronically in Koine. Morphologically/historically it belongs to a **second-perfect** formation associated with the **ἰδ-/εἰδ-/οἰδ-** stem family connected with seeing/knowing; it should not be described as 'the perfect of ἰδεῖν,' since an infinitive is not the historical root. Its form functions with present-time lexical meaning, while **ᾔδειν** is historically/pluperfect in morphology and functions as 'I knew.' The future is **εἰδήσω**. οἶδα therefore provides a useful example of why morphological tense-form and synchronic lexical meaning must be distinguished.
φημί ('to say, affirm')
**φημί** ('I say, affirm') is an athematic, partly enclitic verb. Forms: **φημί, φῄς, φησί(ν), φαμέν, φατέ, φασί(ν)**. Its imperfect **ἔφην** ('I was saying'). φημί is rarer than λέγω in the NT but appears, e.g., in narrative and quotation formulas.
ἔρχομαι ('to come, go')
**ἔρχομαι** ('come, go') has **lexical-middle present morphology** but an irregular/suppletive paradigm across its tense systems: present **ἔρχομαι**, future **ἐλεύσομαι**, aorist **ἦλθον**, perfect **ἐλήλυθα**. The aorist and perfect have active-form morphology, so the lexeme should not be taught simply as a verb with only middle/passive forms. Traditional grammars may call the present 'deponent,' but GOLD analyzes the actual morphology system by system and treats the historical label as secondary terminology.
**John 11:32 (PT1904/GOC)** — …**ἦλθεν**… . **ἦλθεν** is 3rd singular second aorist active indicative within the suppletive/irregular paradigm of **ἔρχομαι**.
**John 20:6 (PT1904/GOC)** — **ἔρχεται οὖν Σίμων Πέτρος**… . **ἔρχεται** is 3rd singular present middle-form morphology of **ἔρχομαι**. GOLD treats **ἔρχομαι** as a lexical-middle present-system form within an irregular/suppletive lexeme; the traditional label “deponent” is not the primary morphological analysis.
λέγω ('to say') and εἶπον (aorist)
**λέγω** ('I say') is suppletive: present **λέγω**, future **ἐρῶ** (from *ἐρέω*), aorist **εἶπον** (2nd aor.), perfect **εἴρηκα**. The aorist **εἶπον** is one of the single most common words in the NT, appearing constantly in narrative: 'he said, he said to them…'. Note the imperative **λέγε** (pres.) vs **εἰπέ** (aor.) and the aorist infinitive **εἰπεῖν** ('to say').
**Matt 5:21-48** — **ἠκούσατε ὅτι ἐρρέθη τοῖς ἀρχαίοις…** **ἐγὼ δὲ λέγω ὑμῖν**
*You have heard that it was said to the ancients… but I say to you…*
Parsing: ἐρρέθη = aor. pass. of λέγω ('was said'); λέγω = 1 sg. pres. (contrast with the aorist tradition).
ὁράω ('to see') and εἶδον (aorist)
**ὁράω** ('see') combines a contract present system with a suppletive overall paradigm: present **ὁράω / ὁρῶ**, future **ὄψομαι**, aorist **εἶδον**, and perfect **ἑώρακα**.
The main historical stem families illustrated here are **ὁρα-**, **ὀπ-** and **ἰδ-**. The perfect **ἑώρακα** belongs with the **ὁρα-** family; its different perfect-system shape is not evidence for a fourth unrelated root. Thus present contraction and suppletion across the paradigm are compatible descriptions of different aspects of the same verb.
**ἑώρακα** is first-person singular perfect active indicative. 'I have seen' is a useful translation, but any result-state, current-relevance or continuing-result interpretation must be established from context rather than imposed as the invariant meaning of perfect morphology.
φέρω ('to bear, carry')
**φέρω** ('bear, carry, bring') is a classic multi-stem irregular/suppletive verb. Its standard principal parts include **φέρω, οἴσω, ἤνεγκα, ἐνήνοχα, ἐνήνεγμαι, ἠνέχθην**. The aorist principal-part citation is **ἤνεγκα**; **ἠνέγκη** should not be presented as a coequal ordinary aorist-indicative principal part. The paradigm illustrates why suppletive and irregular verbs must be learned by tense-system stems rather than predicted mechanically from the present form. Common compounds include **ἀναφέρω, προσφέρω, διαφέρω**.
αἱρέω ('to take, seize')
**αἱρέω** ('I take, seize') is regular-ish but has middle/passive uses. Its compounds appear in the NT. The noun **αἵρεσις** ('heresy, sect') is from this root.
ἐσθίω ('to eat')
**ἐσθίω** ('I eat') has suppletive aorist **ἔφαγον** and future **φάγομαι**. The aorist **ἔφαγον** is very common, especially in meal/Eucharist narratives. (cf. future **φάγομαι** in promises of the Messianic banquet.)
**Matt 6:25** — …τί **φάγητε**… (2 pl. aor. act. subj. of ἐσθίω, 'what you will eat', in an indirect question)
**John 6:53** — ἐὰν μὴ **φάγητε** τὴν σάρκα τοῦ υἱοῦ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου…
*Unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man…* — φάγητε = 2 pl. aor. act. subj. of ἐσθίω (from the 2nd aorist ἔφαγον system: stem φαγε- + subj. ending -ητε). Note this is aorist active subjunctive, not the future middle φάγομαι.
Irregular and Suppletive Principal Parts
Irregular verbs may show **suppletion**, inherited stem gradation, present-stem expansion, voice-system alternation, or several of these at once. Their principal parts must therefore be learned as **lexeme-specific sets** rather than generated mechanically from the visible present form. The following high-frequency NT/Koine sets illustrate this architecture; **not every row is suppletive in the strict sense**. An em dash means that this learner list does **not supply a standard NT principal part in that slot**, not that the form is grammatically impossible.
1. **λέγω / ἐρῶ / εἶπον (or εἶπα) / εἴρηκα / εἴρημαι / ἐρρέθην (or ἐρρήθην)** — genuinely multi-stem/suppletive paradigm ('say')
2. **ὁράω / ὄψομαι / εἶδον / ἑώρακα / — / ὤφθην** — irregular/suppletive multi-stem paradigm ('see')
3. **φέρω / οἴσω / ἤνεγκα / ἐνήνοχα / ἐνήνεγμαι / ἠνέχθην** — classic multi-stem/suppletive paradigm ('bear/carry')
4. **ἔρχομαι / ἐλεύσομαι / ἦλθον / ἐλήλυθα / — / —** — irregular/suppletive multi-stem paradigm ('come/go')
5. **ἐσθίω / φάγομαι / ἔφαγον / — / — / —** — suppletive future/aorist stem family relative to the present ('eat')
6. **γίνομαι / γενήσομαι / ἐγενόμην / γέγονα / γεγένημαι / ἐγενήθην** — highly irregular **same-root γεν-/γον- paradigm**, not suppletive in GOLD's strict sense ('become/happen')
These rows illustrate principal-part architecture, not an assertion that every listed form is equally frequent in the New Testament. Missing or unattested slots must always be scoped to the relevant corpus/period and must not be filled with invented forms.
Defective Verbs
A verb is **defective** when one or more expected grammatical systems are absent or not ordinarily attested **within a stated linguistic domain**. This must be distinguished from a simple corpus gap: a form unattested in the New Testament may occur elsewhere in Koine or earlier/later Greek, and lack of NT attestation does not by itself prove grammatical impossibility. GOLD should therefore state defectiveness precisely, for example **'no future is attested in the NT corpus used here'** or **'no standard principal part is ordinarily cited'**, rather than claiming without qualification that a verb 'has no future/perfect.' Missing slots in principal-part tables should be marked transparently, not filled with invented forms.
Morphologically Irregular High-Frequency Verbs
Beyond the principal irregular/suppletive sets above, several very common verbs have unpredictable individual irregularities: **ἀποθνῄσκω / ἀποθανοῦμαι / ἀπέθανον** (die); **ἀνίστημι / ἀναστήσομαι / ἀνέστην** (raise/rise); **ἐσθίω** (above); **κράζω / κράξομαι / ἔκραξα** (cry out); **πίνω / πίομαι / ἔπιον** (drink). These appear constantly and reward memorization.
Paradigms
εἰμί ('to be') — Present System
Athematic, irregular, enclitic. Memorize entirely. Note the subjunctive ὦ and the participle ὤν/οὖσα/ὄν.
| Person | Indicative (pres.) | Subjunctive | Imperative | Infinitive | Participle |
| 1 sg. | εἰμί | ὦ | — | — | — |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 sg. | εἶ | ᾖς | ἴσθι | — | — |
| 3 sg. | ἐστί(ν) | ᾖ | ἔστω | — | — |
| 1 pl. | ἐσμέν | ὦμεν | — | — | — |
| 2 pl. | ἐστέ | ἦτε | ἔστε | — | — |
| 3 pl. | εἰσί(ν) | ὦσι(ν) | ἔστων / ἔστωσαν | — | — |
| Infinitive | — | — | — | εἶναι | — |
| Participle | — | — | — | — | ὤν, οὖσα, ὄν |
εἰμί — Imperfect (ἦν) and Future (ἔσομαι)
NT/Koine-prioritized imperfect and future of **εἰμί**. The main imperfect forms are **ἤμην, ἦς/ἦσθα, ἦν, ἦμεν/ἤμεθα, ἦτε, ἦσαν**. Older/Classical alternatives may be noted secondarily, but the learner paradigm prioritizes forms relevant to Biblical/Koine Greek.
| Person | Imperfect (NT/Koine priority) | Future ('will be') |
| 1 sg. | ἤμην 1 sg. imperfect indicative NT/Koine priority | ἔσομαι 1 sg. future indicative |
|---|---|---|
| 2 sg. | ἦς / ἦσθα 2 sg. imperfect indicative both forms attested in Koine tradition | ἔσῃ 2 sg. future indicative |
| 3 sg. | ἦν 3 sg. imperfect indicative | ἔσται 3 sg. future indicative |
| 1 pl. | ἦμεν / ἤμεθα 1 pl. imperfect indicative Koine alternatives | ἐσόμεθα 1 pl. future indicative |
| 2 pl. | ἦτε 2 pl. imperfect indicative | ἔσεσθε 2 pl. future indicative |
| 3 pl. | ἦσαν 3 pl. imperfect indicative | ἔσονται 3 pl. future indicative |
οἶδα ('to know')
**οἶδα** is historically a second-perfect formation associated with the ἰδ-/εἰδ-/οἰδ- stem family but functions synchronically in Koine as 'know' with present-time lexical meaning. Its morphology and synchronic meaning must be distinguished; its so-called imperfect forms are historically pluperfect forms functioning as past 'knew.'
| Tense | Form | Meaning |
| Present | οἶδα | I know (perfect in form, present in meaning) |
|---|---|---|
| Imperfect | ᾔδειν | I knew (pluperfect in form) |
| Future | εἰδήσω | I will know |
| 1 sg. | οἶδα | I know |
| 2 sg. | οἶσθα | you know |
| 3 sg. | οἶδε(ν) | he/she knows |
| 3 pl. | οἴδασι(ν) | they know |
Chapter glossary
- εἰμί — I am (to be)
eimi
verb
The verb 'to be'; copula and existential; highly irregular and very common.- ἦν — he/she/it was
ēn
verb
3 sg. imperfect of εἰμί; among the most frequent words in the NT.- ἔσομαι — I will be
esomai
verb
**ἔσομαι**: future middle-form paradigm of **εἰμί**, continuing the inherited **ἐσ-/es-** root. It is irregular in inflection but **not suppletive**. GOLD does not classify the form as “deponent” merely because the future uses middle morphology.- ὤν — being (participle)
ōn
verb
Present participle of εἰμί (m.); fem. οὖσα, neut. ὄν.- οἶδα — I know
oida
verb
**οἶδα**: historically a second-perfect formation associated with the ἰδ-/εἰδ-/οἰδ- 'see/know' stem family; synchronically in Koine it functions lexically as 'know' with present-time meaning.- γίνομαι — I become, happen
ginomai
verb
**γίνομαι**: lexical-middle / middle-form lexeme (traditional: deponent) with a highly irregular paradigm built from related **γεν-/γον-** stem material. The present, future, aorist, perfect, and passive-system forms show reduplication, stem-grade alternation, and voice-system differences, but GOLD does **not** classify the lexeme as suppletive in the strict sense. **ἐγένετο** is second aorist middle indicative, distinct from passive-system **ἐγενήθη**.- ἐγένετο — it happened, came to be
egeneto
verb
3 sg. aorist middle indicative of γίνομαι; LXX/NT narrative formula ('it came to pass').- λέγω — I say
legō
verb
Suppletive: aorist εἶπον, future ἐρῶ, perfect εἴρηκα.- εἶπον — I said
eipon
verb
Second (suppletive) aorist of λέγω; extremely common in NT narrative.- ἔρχομαι — I come, go
erchomai
verb
**ἔρχομαι**: lexical-middle present morphology in an irregular/suppletive paradigm; future **ἐλεύσομαι**, aorist **ἦλθον**, and perfect **ἐλήλυθα** show system-specific morphology, including active-form aorist/perfect.- ὁράω — I see
horaō
verb
Suppletive: aorist εἶδον, future ὄψομαι, perfect ἑώρακα.- ἐσθίω — I eat
esthiō
verb
Suppletive: aorist ἔφαγον, future (mid.) φάγομαι.- — copula
verb
A linking verb (εἰμί) joining subject and predicate nominative/adjective.- — defective verb
verb
Defective verb: a lexeme whose paradigm lacks or does not ordinarily attest one or more expected grammatical systems within a **specified corpus, period, or lexicographic domain**. Absence from the NT alone does not prove grammatical impossibility.