First/Sigmatic Aorist
The **first aorist** (or **sigmatic aorist**) is characterized by **-σα-** morphology in the active/middle system. In a regular indicative model such as **λύω → ἔλυσα**, the form contains the aorist-system stem, characteristic sigmatic morphology, and the first-aorist inflectional paradigm, with augment in the indicative where appropriate. Historically it belongs to the secondary system, but synchronically its surface forms should be learned as a **distinct first-aorist paradigm**, not as the ordinary imperfect ending row plus -σα.
First Aorist Active
The **first aorist active indicative** of λύω is **ἔλυσα, ἔλυσας, ἔλυσε(ν), ἐλύσαμεν, ἐλύσατε, ἔλυσαν**. The system is recognized by its first-aorist/sigmatic morphology rather than by treating the forms as ordinary imperfect endings. The indicative normally has past temporal reference, while the aorist system itself carries perfective viewpoint. The augment is characteristic past-indicative morphology; it should not be treated as a freestanding semantic 'past' morpheme.
**John 3:16 (PT1904/GOC)** — **Οὕτω γὰρ ἠγάπησεν ὁ Θεὸς τὸν κόσμον** ('For God so loved the world'). **ἠγάπησεν** is 3rd singular aorist active indicative of **ἀγαπάω**. The form presents the situation perfectively and, as an indicative aorist, is normally interpreted with past temporal reference. The aorist by itself does **not** imply that the love was momentary or 'once for all.'
First Aorist Middle
The **first aorist middle indicative** uses the first-aorist stem with characteristic middle inflection: **ἐλυσάμην, ἐλύσω, ἐλύσατο, ἐλυσάμεθα, ἐλύσασθε, ἐλύσαντο**. The 2 sg. **ἐλύσω** is morphologically aorist middle indicative in this paradigm. Its initial **augment** is characteristic aorist-indicative / past-indicative morphology; the complete form, paradigm, syntax, and context establish the parse, and the indicative is typically interpreted with past temporal reference. Do not treat the augment by itself as a freestanding morpheme whose invariant meaning is simply “past.”
Formation of the -σα Stem
Before the -σα of the first aorist, the stem-final consonant undergoes predictable changes:
- **Labial** (π β φ) + σ → **ψ**: βλέπ- → ἔβλεψα.
- **Velar** (κ γ χ) + σ → **ξ**: **διώκ-** → **ἐδίωξα** (κ+σ→ξ); **ἀνοιγ-** → **ἤνοιξα**.
- **Dental** (τ δ θ) + σ → **σ** (dental drops): πείθ- → **ἔπεισα**.
- Vowel-final stems add -σα directly: λυ- → ἔλυσα.
Stem-Final Consonant Changes
The consonant changes before the aorist sigma (§27.4) are the same as those before the future sigma and before other sigmatic formations. They follow the general rule: labial+σ→ψ, velar+σ→ξ, dental+σ→σ (dental lost). These are detailed in Chapter 6 (orthographic processes).
Second/Strong Aorist
The **second aorist** (traditional **strong aorist**) lacks the first-aorist **-σα-** marker and uses a distinct aorist-system stem. In ordinary ω-verbs it is **thematic**, using the ο/ε thematic vowel with the thematic secondary-series inflection: **ἔλιπον, ἔλιπες, ἔλιπε(ν), ἐλίπομεν, ἐλίπετε, ἔλιπον**. The present-system stem often differs from the aorist stem: **λείπω** has present **λειπ-** but second-aorist **λιπ-**, so **ἔλιπον** shows stem-grade alternation rather than 'ε staying.' Other common examples include **λαμβάνω → ἔλαβον**, **φεύγω → ἔφυγον**, and **γίνομαι → ἐγενόμην**. First versus second aorist is a morphological distinction, not a different aspectual meaning.
**Mark 15:37** — ὁ δὲ Ἰησοῦς **ἀφεὶς** φωνὴν μεγάλην **ἐξέπνευσεν**.
*But Jesus, having let out a loud cry, expired.*
Parsing: ἐξέπνευσεν = 3 sg. aorist 1 active (aorist of ἐκπνέω).
**Matt 22:27** — **ἀπέθανεν ἡ γυνή**.
*…the woman died.*
Parsing: ἀπέθανεν = 3 sg. aorist 2 active of ἀποθνῄσκω.
Stem Alternation
Second aorists often show a different **ablaut** (vowel gradation) grade of the stem: **λείπω** (λε-) → **ἔλιπον** (λι-, zero grade); **λαμβάνω** → **ἔλαβον**; **τρέχω** → **ἔδραμον** (different stem). These alternations are inherited from Indo-European and must be memorized as part of the principal parts.
Root Aorists
Some inherited aorists are **root/athematic** formations rather than ordinary thematic second aorists. In such forms the relevant aorist/root stem takes athematic inflection without the ordinary thematic ο/ε pattern. Secure models include **ἔστην** (from ἵστημι) and **ἔγνων** (from γινώσκω). By contrast, **ἔθανον** belongs with the thematic second-aorist type and should not be used as a root-aorist model. Root/athematic aorists are relatively limited but important in high-frequency verbs.
Athematic Aorists
Root/athematic second aorists attach their inflection directly to the aorist/root stem without the ordinary thematic ο/ε vowel, but they do **not** all share one identical visible stem vowel or one universal **-ην** surface row. For **ἵστημι**, the strong aorist stem gives **ἔστην, ἔστης, ἔστη, ἔστημεν, ἔστητε, ἔστησαν**. By contrast **γινώσκω → ἔγνων** uses the lengthened/strong **γνω-** aorist stem: **ἔγνων, ἔγνως, ἔγνω, ἔγνωμεν, ἔγνωτε, ἔγνωσαν**. The defining feature is therefore **athematic attachment to the relevant aorist/root stem**, not an invariant -ην ending sequence. Such root/athematic aorists occur in a limited inherited set and must be learned lexeme by lexeme.
Irregular Aorists
Many high-frequency verbs have **irregular or suppletive aorist systems** that must be learned with the principal parts. Examples include **λέγω → εἶπον**, **ὁράω → εἶδον**, **φέρω → ἤνεγκα** (aorist active; passive **ἠνέχθην**), and **ἔρχομαι → ἦλθον**. These forms illustrate that the visible present-system stem does not necessarily predict the aorist stem. Suppletion should be reserved for genuinely distinct lexical/historical stem material rather than every irregular alternation.
**John 1:14 (PT1904/GOC)** — καὶ **ἐθεασάμεθα** τὴν δόξαν αὐτοῦ ('and we beheld his glory'). **ἐθεασάμεθα** is 1st plural aorist middle indicative of **θεάομαι**. The exact breathing/accent and surface form are retained from the primary PT1904/GOC teaching text.
Suppletion
**Suppletion** means that a single lexical paradigm draws on distinct lexical or historical stem families. It does not mean that every principal part must have a separate root, or that every visible difference between tense stems is suppletion.
Examples include **λέγω / ἐρῶ / εἶπον**, **ὁράω / ὄψομαι / εἶδον**, and **φέρω / οἴσω / ἤνεγκα**. Within such a paradigm, some forms still belong to the same stem family: the perfect **ἑώρακα** is related to the present-system **ὁρα-**, while **ὄψομαι** uses **ὀπ-** and **εἶδον** uses **ἰδ-** material. Likewise, a future and aorist may share a suppletive family relative to the present, as **φάγομαι / ἔφαγον** beside **ἐσθίω**.
Learn principal parts individually, but distinguish lexical suppletion from ordinary tense formation, reduplication, augment, vowel-grade alternation and other irregularities. A list of different surface forms alone does not establish how many historical roots it contains.
First Passive Aorist
The **aorist passive** is built on a separate passive stem with the marker **-θη-** (first passive) or **-η-** (second passive). First aorist passive = augment + passive stem + **-θη-** + **secondary active endings** (the aorist passive is the one tense where the passive takes active endings rather than middle ones). Paradigm: **ἐλύθην, ἐλύθης, ἐλύθη, ἐλύθημεν, ἐλύθητε, ἐλύθησαν**. The 3 sg. is bare **ἐλύθη**.
Voice contrast: **Acts 22:16** — …**βάπτισαι** (aor. **middle** imperative); **1 Cor 1:14** — **ἐβάπτισα** (aor. active indicative).
Aorist passive: **Mark 1:9** — …**ἐβαπτίσθη** ὑπὸ τοῦ Ἰωάννου.
*…[Jesus] was baptized by John.*
Parsing: ἐβαπτίσθη = 3 sg. aorist passive indicative of βαπτίζω; agent marked by ὑπό + gen.
Second Passive Aorist
The **second passive aorist** uses characteristic **-η- / -ε-** passive-system morphology rather than the first-passive **-θη- / -θε-** pattern. A secure model is **φαίνω → ἐφάνην**; another well-attested example is **στέλλω → ἐστάλην**. These forms should be learned lexeme by lexeme. Do not use a hypothetical **ἐλύην** as though it were the normal second-passive paradigm of λύω. The labels 'first' and 'second passive' are morphological, not degrees of semantic passivity.
-θη- Forms
The **-θη-** marker is the regular aorist passive morpheme. It also forms the future passive (Chapter 26): -θη + σ + endings → **λυθήσομαι** ('I will be loosed'). The -θη- forms are intransitive in origin in some verbs (so-called 'passival' aorists, e.g. **ἐγενήθην** 'I came to be'), a fact relevant to debates about the 'divine passive'.
-η- Forms
The **-η-** passive-system aorist is an inherited formation found in a limited set of verbs. Secure examples include **ἐφάνην** (from φαίνω) and **ἐστάλην** (from στέλλω). The earlier example **ἐκλάγην** is not retained as a learner model without secure lexical and attestation evidence. For NT reading, recognize the -η- pattern as a distinct passive-system morphology alongside the more common -θη- formation.
Morphological versus Semantic Passivity
A verb form built with **-θη-** or **-η-** belongs morphologically to a passive-system aorist, but its **semantic interpretation is not determined by the suffix alone**. Depending on the lexeme and construction, such forms may be passive, intransitive, middle-like, or lexicalized. Analyze in the order: **morphology → lexeme → construction/argument structure → explicit agent expressions (where present) → discourse context**. A phrase such as **ὑπό + genitive** can strongly support an agentive passive interpretation, but it is evidence rather than the definition of passive voice.
Paradigms
First Aorist Active Indicative of λύω
First/sigmatic aorist active indicative: characteristic **-σα-** system morphology with its own first-aorist surface inflection; augment appears in the indicative where appropriate. The aorist carries **perfective viewpoint** and in the indicative is **typically associated with past temporal reference**.
| Person | Singular | Plural |
| 1st | ἔλυσα 1 sg. I loosed | ἐλύσαμεν 1 pl. we loosed |
|---|---|---|
| 2nd | ἔλυσας 2 sg. | ἐλύσατε 2 pl. |
| 3rd | ἔλυσε(ν) 3 sg. | ἔλυσαν 3 pl. |
First Aorist Middle Indicative of λύω
Augment + stem + -σα + secondary middle endings. Note ἐλύσω (2 sg.) looks like future — augment disambiguates.
| Person | Singular | Plural |
| 1st | ἐλυσάμην 1 sg. | ἐλυσάμεθα 1 pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 2nd | ἐλύσω 2 sg. | ἐλύσασθε 2 pl. |
| 3rd | ἐλύσατο 3 sg. | ἐλύσαντο 3 pl. |
Second Aorist Active Indicative of λείπω
Second/strong aorist active indicative of λείπω: a **thematic** second-aorist system with a distinct aorist stem (**λειπ- → λιπ-**) and thematic secondary-series inflection. The absence of -σα does not imply absence of the thematic vowel.
| Person | Singular | Plural |
| 1st | ἔλιπον 1 sg. I left | ἐλίπομεν 1 pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 2nd | ἔλιπες 2 sg. | ἐλίπετε 2 pl. |
| 3rd | ἔλιπε(ν) 3 sg. | ἔλιπον 3 pl. |
First Aorist Passive Indicative of λύω
Augment + passive stem + -θη- + secondary ACTIVE endings. 3 sg. is bare ἐλύθη.
| Person | Singular | Plural |
| 1st | ἐλύθην 1 sg. I was loosed | ἐλύθημεν 1 pl. |
|---|---|---|
| 2nd | ἐλύθης 2 sg. | ἐλύθητε 2 pl. |
| 3rd | ἐλύθη 3 sg. | ἐλύθησαν 3 pl. |
Common Aorist Forms in the New Testament
High-frequency aorists to memorize. Note mix of 1st (-σα) and 2nd (no sigma) aorists, and the -θη passive.
| Form | Verb (lemma) | Parsing | Meaning |
| ἠγάπησεν | ἀγαπάω love | 3 sg. aor. 1 act. ind. | he loved |
|---|---|---|---|
| ἀπέθανεν | ἀποθνῄσκω die | 3 sg. aor. 2 act. ind. | he died |
| εἶπεν | λέγω say | 3 sg. aor. 2 act. ind. | he said |
| ἐγένετο | γίνομαι become | 3 sg. aor. 2 mid. ind. | it happened |
| ἐβαπτίσθην | βαπτίζω baptize | 1 sg. aor. pass. ind. | I was baptized |
| ἀνέστη | ἀνίστημι raise | 3 sg. root/athematic aor. act. ind. | he rose |
Chapter glossary
- ἔλυσα — I loosed
elysa
verb
First (sigmatic) aorist active of λύω; the paradigm aorist.- ἠγάπησα — I loved
ēgapēsa
verb
First aorist of ἀγαπάω (note temporal augment α→η).- εἶπον — I said
eipon
verb
Second (suppletive) aorist of λέγω; no relation to the present stem.- εἶδον — I saw
eidon
verb
Second (suppletive) aorist of ὁράω.- ἐγένετο — it happened, it came to be
egeneto
verb
**ἐγένετο**: 3rd singular second aorist **middle** indicative of γίνομαι, commonly 'it happened / it came to be'; distinct morphologically from passive-system forms such as ἐγενήθη.- ἐλύθην — I was loosed
elythēn
verb
First aorist passive of λύω; the -θη- marker.- — aorist
verb
Aorist tense-system characteristically associated with **perfective viewpoint**. In the indicative it is typically associated with past temporal reference; non-indicative aorists can participate in relative/contextual temporal relations rather than encoding deictic absolute time in the same way.- — first aorist
verb
Sigmatic aorist formed with -σα- marker.- — second aorist
verb
Second/strong aorist active-middle system lacking first-aorist -σα and ordinarily using a distinct **thematic** aorist stem (e.g. λείπω → ἔλιπον). Root/athematic aorists such as ἔστην and ἔγνων are related inherited formations but should be identified separately.- — perfective aspect
verb
Viewing the action as a complete whole (aorist).- — suppletion
verb
Suppletion: use of genuinely distinct lexical/historical stem material in different grammatical systems of one lexeme (e.g. λέγω/ἐρῶ/εἶπον, ὁράω/ὄψομαι/εἶδον). Mere unpredictability or ordinary stem alternation does not by itself establish suppletion.